David M. Howard, Jr.

DAVID. Israel's second and greatest king, he rose to power from humble circumstances and amid many difficulties: he captured Jerusalem, established it as his capital, unified the nation, and built an empire that stretched from Egypt to Mesopotamia during a 40-year reign, ca. 1010-970 B.C.E. He was a man of many talents -- a shepherd, musician, poet, warrior, politician, administrator -- but he is most prominent as the king par excellence, the standard for all later kings, and as a messianic symbol.

A. Name

B. Family

C. Rise to Power

D. Consolidation of Power

E. Decline

F. A Man After God's Own Heart

G. Sources and Methods For the Study of David

H. Assessment

I. Bibliography

A. Name. David's name is rendered däwid or däwîd in Heb (dauid or daueid in Gk), and it occurs more than 1000 times in the OT, some 59 times in the NT. The name is attested in Old Babylonian (early 2nd millennium B.C.E.: da-wi-da-nu-um) and possibly in Moabite (9th cent. B.C.E.: dwd[h]).

The term "David" has been suggested as a title, perhaps a throne name, and not a personal name. Impetus for this suggestion has come from 2 Sam 21:19, which credits one "Elhanan" with the killing of Goliath, whereas 1 Samuel 17 has "David" killing him; the former would have been his personal name (Honeyman 1948: 23-24). This creates several problems, however, not least of which is the anomaly of "Elhanan/David" being considered one of his own mighty men (McCarter 1980a: 291; 1984: 450). (1 Chr 20:5 states that Elhanan killed Lahmi, Goliath's brother, which has been seen as a harmonizing attempt [or textual corruption] by the Chronic-ler [Anderson 1989: 255]. It may also indicate textual corruption in 2 Samuel, however [Keil and Delitzsch n.d.: 465-66].)

Another support for seeing "David" as a title has come from a reading from the Mari archives (dawïdûm), originally understood as "general" or "commander-in-chief." However, that translation has been proven erroneous; the word is related to Akk dabdûm, and means "defeat" (Tadmor 1958: 129-31).

B. Family. David was the youngest of at least eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem (1 Sam 17:12-14), and he had at least two (half-?) sisters, Abigail and Zeruiah, as well (1 Chr 2:16). His mother's name is unknown, unless it was Nahash (McCarter 1984: 392, 394). Six of his brothers are named in the genealogy in 1 Chr 2:13-15; one may have died without heirs and thus been omitted in this list. (See also McCarter 1980a: 276.)

David's previous ancestry is found in Ruth 4:18-22 and 1 Chr 2:1-15, as well as in Matt 1:2-6 and Lk 3:31-38. Each of these genealogies shows him as descended from Judah, with an important purpose of showing the continuity of the Judahite line, in keeping with the royal promise to Judah in Gen 49:8-12. His ancestry was partially non-Israelite: Moabite, via Ruth, and Canaanite, via Tamar. Theologically, these inclusions make the point that YHWH was not to be too tightly bound by nationalistic or ethnocentric expectations in his choice of David.

David had eight wives who are named in Scripture, seven of whom bore him children, the other being Michal, Saul's daughter (2 Sam 6:23); the most prominent were Abigail (1 Samuel 25) and Bathsheba (2 Samuel 11-12). He also had many unnamed wives and concubines, who likewise bore him children (1 Chr 3:9; 14:3).

David had 19 sons who are named, along with one daughter, in addition to numerous unnamed sons and daughters (see DAVID, SONS OF). His line continued unbroken among the kings of Judah, and the NT traces this line, via two routes, to Jesus (Matt 1:6-17; Lk 3:23-31). David's prominence as Israel's greatest king and his importance as a theological symbol (see COVENANT, DAVIDIC) account for the special interest in his line.

C. Rise to Power. David's story begins with his dramatic rise in fortunes, from humble beginnings as an insignificant shepherd in his father's house to his acclamation as king over all Israel in his own capital city, Jerusalem. Through it all, we see YHWH favoring him, and events consistently turning out in his favor. (See below, §G2.)

1. Samuel's Anointing of David, at Bethlehem (1 Sam 16:1-13). David is introduced in the Bible with the story of his anointing to be king by the prophet Samuel. The story unfolds dramatically -- e.g., David is identified by name only at the end of the episode -- with Samuel going to Jesse's home at YHWH's behest and reviewing seven impressive sons, who nonetheless were not YHWH's choice, before asking about any other sons. David, the youngest, was called from the fields where he was tending the sheep. He was anointed as king, after which YHWH's Spirit came mightily upon him from that day forward.

2. David's Arrival at the Royal Court (1 Sam 16:14-23). At the same time, YHWH's Spirit was leaving the present king, Saul, and an evil spirit from YHWH was coming upon him. This spiritual transfer of power symbolized the inevitable political transfer of power as well. This episode brings Saul and David together, and the remainder of 1 Samuel focuses upon David's rise vis-à-vis Saul's decline. David was introduced into Saul's court as one skilled in many areas, including the ability to soothe Saul whenever he was afflicted by the evil spirit. He became armor-bearer and musician to Saul, presumably at Gibeah, Saul's hometown (15:34; 22:6).

3. David and Goliath (1 Sam 17:1-18:5). We see David soon with an opportunity to demonstrate his military capabilities, in the lengthy story of his encounter with Goliath. This is a complex story, with many difficulties, textual and otherwise (Klein 1983: 168-83; Barthélemy et al. 1986). The story in the MT presents a conflict between the Philistines and Israel at the Valley of Elah, near Gath. The Philistines were represented by one "Goliath," of Gath (17:4, 23), a giant of a man who challenged Israel to send out a warrior to engage him in single combat; the winner of this contest of champions ostensibly would determine the overall victor (17:1-10). The Israelites' fear in the face of this challenge was put to shame by the fearlessness of the young shepherd-boy David, who appeared on the scene from the fields with provisions for his brothers (17:11-30).

News of David reached Saul, who summoned him and sent him out against the Philistine warrior. We see David confronting the giant with nothing but stones and a sling, but nevertheless prevailing over him (17:31-50). Despite the apparent ground rules for the champion-conflict, the Israelites pursued the Philistines W to Gath and Ekron (17:51-54). Saul, then, who earlier had known David in the context of the court (16:17-23), now inquired about his pedigree (17:55-58). David's success provided the basis for Saul's and the people's further trust of him, and, significantly, for Jonathan -- who was a successful warrior in his own right (13:3; 14:1-15) -- to declare his loyalty to David, as well, even to the point of giving David his armor (18:1-5).

4. Threats to David (1 Sam 18:6-21:1--Eng 20:42). Following David's success over Goliath, and his further rise in fortunes, we see Jonathan and Michal, two of Saul's children, "loving" David (18:1, 3, 20). Saul could not go this far, however; indeed, his jealousy was soon aroused, and thus began his long hatred and pursuit of David. He was particularly infuriated by the popular women's taunt that compared him unfavorably with David:

Saul has slain his thousands,

but David his ten thousands

(18:7; also in 21:12--Eng 21:11--and 29:5).

This taunt first appears after David technically had killed only one enemy -- Goliath -- but it reflects the rout of the Philis-tines and the popular attitudes that arose after that incident (cf. 18:16). Indeed, David's fortunes waxed as Saul's jealousy increased and his fortunes declined (18:9-16; Fokkelmann 1986). This was made even more evident by Saul's plots against David, hoping the Philistines would kill him, and his use of his own daughters, Merab and Michal, as pawns in his struggle (18:17-30). Contrary to Saul's expectations, David succeeded even further, and all Israel "loved" him (18:28). Thus, Saul feared and hated him all the more, while David's fortunes continued to rise (18:29-30).

Saul became obsessed with killing David, and endeavored by various means to do so. Saul's daughter (now David's wife) Michal, however, helped him escape once (19:11-17), and his son Jonathan also allied himself with David (18:1-4; 19:1-7; 20:1-21:1--Eng 20:42; 23:16-18). The themes of Jonathan's love for David and the covenant between the two are prominent here, and they form the basis later for several of King David's acts of kindness to Jonathan's son. They also dramatically highlight the tenuous nature of Saul's hold on the throne -- and its bankruptcy -- since his own son, the presumed heir-apparent, allied himself with YHWH's chosen heir-apparent against his own father.

Finally, despite Michal's and Jonathan's help, David was forced to flee from Jerusalem permanently.

5. David the Fugitive (1 Sam 21:2 [Eng 21:1]-30:31). A lengthy account ensues, recounting the details of David's flight from Saul and his service as a mercenary for the Philistines. In each episode, David's character and his fortunes emerge enhanced. The stage is indeed set for David to assume his place as God's chosen king after Saul's death in 1 Samuel 31.

David first fled to Nob, a Benjaminite city near Gibeah and Jerusalem (Isa 10:32; Neh 11:31-32) and the center of religious activity after the destruction of Shiloh (cf. 14:3; Jer. 7:14). Here he obtained provisions and Goliath's sword (via a deception) from Ahimelech, the priest. The worthiness of his person and his cause are highlighted by the priest's making available to him the holy Bread of the Presence, which normally was to be reserved for the priests (Lev 24:8-9). (A seemingly innocuous notice about Doeg the Edomite's presence in 21:8--Eng 21:7 later is shown to be rather ominous, since Doeg came to function as Saul's spy and then slaughtered the priests at Nob on Saul's behalf [22:6-19].)

Following this incident, David fled to Gath, in Philistine territory, where he certainly would have been safe from Saul. However, his reputation as an adversary of the Philistines had preceded him, and he was forced to flee (21:11-16--Eng 21:10-15). At Adullam, NE of Gath, he gathered around him -- from among the marginal and disaffected members of society -- the nucleus of what would become a formidable fighting force (22:1-2). He crossed into Moab to place his parents into the temporary care of the Moabite king (22:3-5), where his descent from the Moabite Ruth could not have but helped him.

When he returned to Judah, Saul heard from Doeg of Ahimelech's aid to David, and enlisted Doeg -- Saul's personal bodyguards having refused to do so -- to kill the 85 priests from Nob and their households (22:6-19). Abiathar, one of Ahimelech's sons, escaped, however, and joined David (22:20-23).

Next, David heard of Philistines harassing Keilah, a Judahite town E of Gath, and he defeated them with YHWH's help, freeing Keilah (23:1-5). Despite their rescue, David learned from YHWH that the men of Keilah planned to give him and his 600 men into Saul's hand, so he fled once again, this time into the wilderness of Ziph, SE of Keilah (23:6-14).

Here Jonathan met David, renewed their covenant, and reassured him (23:15-18). The men of Ziph, like those from Keilah earlier, plotted to give David up to Saul; thus he was forced to flee again, S into the wilderness of Maon, just ahead of Saul and his men. Saul was diverted from his pursuit by a report that Philis-tines had raided the land, and David descended SE to the strongholds of En-Gedi, near the Dead Sea (23:19-24:1--Eng 23:19-29).

We now encounter the first of two related episodes in which David had Saul's life in his hands but chose to spare it (24:2-23--Eng 24:1-22; cf. 26:1-25). In this one, Saul returned to the chase reinforced with 3000 chosen men. When he entered a cave near En-Gedi to relieve himself, one in which David was hiding, David refused to take advantage of the situation, displaying a respect for the office of the anointed king (24:7, 11--Eng 24:6, 10); he himself, of course, would one day occupy that office. Upon David's disclosure to Saul of this, Saul repented -- for the time being -- of his pursuit of David, affirmed David's position as YHWH's chosen, and returned home (24:9-23--Eng 24:8-22).

A notice of Samuel's death and burial follows (25:1a), and then David resumed his wanderings, going into the wilderness of Paran (25:1b). Here, in Maon, he met yet another man who would not help him in his flight, one Nabal, whose character lived up to the meaning of his name ("fool"). Nabal was rich, but he refused to provision David's men, in spite of the latter's consideration of his shepherds, and only the intercession of Nabal's wife Abigail spared him from David's retribution since, unlike her husband, she was aware of David's special favor from YHWH (25:28-31). Fittingly, Nabal then died on his own, and David took Abigail as his wife, as well as Ahinoam of Jezreel. In the meantime, Saul had given his daughter Michal as a wife to another man (25:42-44), as he already had done with Merab (18:19).

A second incident where David spared Saul's life follows (26:1-25). Its similarities to the first has prompted many to see them as variants of the same story (Klein 1983: 236-38). However, it does have a character of its own, and it serves to reinforce the picture given of David's fine character and his awareness of the significance of YHWH's anointed one (26:11, 16, 23). In this episode, David encounters Saul asleep, rather than in a cave, and Saul again "repents" of pursuing David.

The last stage that we see of David's life as a fugitive from Saul was one in which he was able to consolidate even further his own position and following, which facilitated his accession to power following Saul's death (chaps. 27-30). Despite Saul's occasional friendliness, David still feared for his life, so he went over to Achish, king of Gath, with whom he had had earlier contact (27:1-4; cf. 21:11-16--Eng 21:10-15). Achish gave him Ziklag as a city from which he could conduct raids, and he stayed there for 16 months. During this time, he curried favor with his Philistine overlord by conducting many raids, passing them off as raids against the Philistines' enemies in Judah, his own land; in fact, he was raiding to the south, against various desert bands, including Amalekites, which would naturally win him the loyalty of those living in Judah itself.

David's position was such that Achish would have taken him into battle against Israel and Saul himself had he not been overruled by the rest of the Philistine coalition, due to their suspicions concerning David's loyalties (28:1-2; 29:1-11). This incident had the effect of removing David from any responsibility for Saul's death, which resulted in the ensuing battle (chap. 31). In the meantime, David did further battle with the Amalekites (chap. 30), who had been raiding in Judah and had taken much booty and David's two wives. He recovered these and distributed the spoils throughout Judah, further demonstrating his military prowess and strengthening his position in Judah.

6. The Death of Saul (1 Sam 31:1-2 Sam 1:27). David's respect for the office of king was again demonstrated when he received the report of Saul's and Jonathan's deaths. The news was brought him by a self-serving Amalekite who attempted to ingratiate himself with David by claiming to have killed Saul. Instead, David had him killed for his lack of respect for the royal office (2 Sam 1:1-16). David's lament (1:17-27) over the deaths of Saul and Jonathan is a model of grief and was recorded in the poetic Book of Yashar (1:18; cf. Josh 10:12-13; 1 Kgs 8:12-13 [LXX]).

7. Judah's Anointing of David, at Hebron (2 Sam 2:1-7). David now was able to return to Judah and, in a public ceremony, he was anointed as king by the men of Judah at Hebron (2 Sam 2:1-4a), where he reigned 7 - 1/2 years (2:11). He immediately reached out to the men of Jabesh-Gilead, in northern Transjordan (2:4b-7), a region that was claimed by Ish-bosheth, Saul's son (2:9). David could not pretend to the kingship of all Israel and Judah yet, however, because of the claims of his rival (2:8-4:12).

8. A Rival King (2 Sam 2:8-4:12). Ish-bosheth was installed as king over the North by Abner, commander of Saul's army, and ruled over Israel for two years (2:8-10). Chapters 2-4 reflect the natural rivalry that existed between Israel and Judah; it is couched in terms of the rivalries between the houses of Saul and David (e.g., 3:1, 6). The kingdom had not yet been divided, yet "Israel" is referred to several times in contrast to "Judah" (e.g., 2:9-10; 3:10, 19, 37; 4:1), reflecting the very real divisions that existed throughout the nation's history. It was a testimony to David's personal magnetism and abilities, as well as to YHWH's favor upon him, that a unified kingdom was able to exist as it did under him.

In these chapters, the rivalry is played out especially through Abner, Saul's commander, and Joab, David's general; David's involvement is limited until Abner's death. First, in a deadly serious contest (McCarter 1984: 95, 98), David's men handed Abner's men an initial defeat, and then Abner killed one of Joab's brothers, Asahel (2:12-23). Joab eventually killed Abner for this (3:26-30), despite the facts that he and Abner had declared a truce (2:24-32) and that Abner had had friendly contacts with David (3:12-21). David mourned Abner's death (3:31-39), in a manner reminiscent of his mourning Saul's death; this -- and more -- pleased the people (3:36). Ish-bosheth then was murdered, eliminating all effective rivalry to David's claim to the throne (chap. 4). David again mourned and he had the murderers executed, again displaying the concern for fairness in combat exhibited earlier. The way was now clear for David to assume sole power over a united Israel.

9. All Israel's Anointing of David, at Hebron (2 Sam 5:1-5). David was anointed for a third time, also at Hebron, this time over all Israel and Judah. The language of acclamation ("shepherd," "prince," "king") is all part of standard vocabulary pertaining to royalty. The reference to him as "shepherd," however, cannot help but recall the first reference to him, as an obscure shepherd, as well (1 Samuel 16). "How the lowly has risen!" Soon thereafter he was to take Jerusalem, and he reigned in Jerusalem for 33 years, for a total reign of 40 years.

10. David's Capture of Jerusalem (2 Sam 5:6-10). The story of David's rise to power climaxes with his capture of the city that was to serve as the nation's capital throughout its later history (see DAVID, CITY OF; JERUSALEM). Jerusalem afforded him numerous advantages. It was centrally located between Judah and the northern tribes and was not strongly identified with any tribe: it had been included in the tribal allotment of Benjamin (Josh 18:28), but it appeared as part of the borders of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:8), and it was included in the list of cities the Judahites did not conquer (15:63). Thus, it could well play the role of a "neutral" capital. It was an old, well-established, walled Jebusite city, strategically located in the inland hill country. David easily could have drawn on its established bureaucracies in running the city (Mendenhall 1975; Herion and Hill 1986), although Mendenhall has drastically overstated the case for David as a cynical and Canaanized despot.

The method of David's capture of the city is not entirely clear. The explanation that it was up through the water shaft discovered by Charles Warren in 1867 (see 5:8) has lost much of its earlier cachet (McCarter 1984: 136-40; Anderson 1989: 81-85; but cf. DAVID, CITY OF, §E2).

The story of David's rise ends with the note that his present exalted position was due to "YHWH, the God of hosts" (5:10).

D. Consolidation of Power. The zenith of David's story now follows. Things went well for him militarily, administratively, and especially spiritually. It is telling, however, that this portion of his life receives such brief treatment.

1. Material Successes - I (2 Sam 5:11-25). There is little break in thought here from the comment in 5:10, for we see David being favored by God and man (5:11-12), and becoming a prolific father (5:13-16). Furthermore, he had his first true military successes against the Philistines; both came by means of YHWH's fighting on his behalf (5:17-25).

2. Spiritual Successes (2 Sam 6:1-7:29). David's religious sensibilities are shown here via his desires to bring the exiled ark back to Jerusalem and to build a suitable house for it. The account of the ark's return concludes several stories about its fortunes (1 Sam 4:1-7:1), usually collectively referred to as the "Ark Narrative." In this account, David is seen as somewhat insensitive to strict religious conventions regarding the ark (cf. Num 4:15), but nevertheless well-intentioned and enthusiastic. The ark eventually was brought to the City of David amid much celebration (2 Sam 6:5, 12-19). David's wife Michal was embarrassed by his vigorous celebrations, and she ended up barren because of it (6:16, 20-23), which effectively eliminated the possibility of a descendant of Saul having any hereditary claim to David's throne.

David's fortunes reached their peak with the significant royal-grant covenant that YHWH made with him (2 Samuel 7), assuring him that he himself would have a descendant on the throne in perpetuity (see COVENANT, DAVIDIC; Kaiser 1974, 1989). It came in response to David's desire to build YHWH a house; YHWH instead promised David a sure "house" (i.e., dynasty) forever and assured him, using the language of divine adoption (McCarter 1984: 207; Anderson 1989: 122), that his son would be YHWH's son (cf. Ps. 2:7; 89:27-28--Eng 89:26-27). David's response was a prayer of gratitude (7:18-29). This chapter has aptly been called "the theological highlight of the Books of Samuel...if not of the Deuteronomistic History as a whole" (Anderson 1989: 112), because of its significant content and its importance in later texts.

3. Material Successes - II (2 Sam 8:1-18). Following this theological highlight, we have a rather mundane catalogue of David's further military victories, over Philistines and Moabites (8:1-2), Arameans (8:3-8), Edomites (8:13-14), and others (8:12), and of his acclaim by the king of Hamath (8:9-12). Its function is to show further that YHWH was with David and that he was an effective warrior and ruler (8:6b, 14b-15). The extent of David's kingdom was impressive: it reached the Mediterranean in the W, the northern Sinai desert in the S, much of Transjordan in the E, and it approached the Euphrates in the N (cf. 24:5-7).

In connection with David's effectiveness as a ruler, the chapter ends with a list of David's chief administrative officials (8:16-18). Among these are Zadok and Ahimelech, who served as David's priests. (Later we see Zadok and Abiathar in this capacity [20:25; cf. McCarter 1984: 253-57; Keil and Delitzsch n.d.: 365-67].) David's sons also were "priests" (8:18).

E. Decline. The rest of the story of David concerns events in which he was largely a victim or a bystander. After an auspicious beginning, he fell into great sin, following which numerous troubles beset him. (See below, §G2.)

1. David and Mephibosheth (2 Sam 9:1-13). The early promises to Jonathan were now fulfilled: David sought to show kindness to a descendant of Saul's for the sake of his covenant with Jonathan (1 Sam 20:14-17, etc.). That his concern was more than merely a personal one for Jonathan is borne out by the several references to the "house of Saul." Ziba, Saul's servant, who later would prove to be somewhat devious in his dealings, introduced David to the lame (and loyal) Mephibosheth, who would not have been a major threat to his throne (but cf. 16:3), and David took him in.

2. The Ammonite War - I (2 Sam 10:1-19). David had a series of hostile encounters with an Ammonite-Aramean coalition (cf. 12:26-31 and the summary in 8:3-8). We see him initiating a friendly encounter with the Ammonite king, but being rebuffed (10:1-5), after which he sent an army against the Ammonites, who by this time had enlisted Aramean help. His general Joab's victory was followed by another attempt -- also unsuccessful -- by the coalition to defeat Israel (10:6-19). The account serves to show David making peace with the Arameans (10:19) and to set the stage for the story of his great sins (cf. 11:1).

3. David and Bathsheba (2 Sam 11:1-12:25). The "Bathsheba Affair" (McCarter 1984: 277) forms a critical turning point in David's life. Prior to this, he prospered greatly; afterward, his personal fortunes were greatly diminished.

For reasons unknown, David did not go with his army to do further battle with the Ammonites (11:1). His presence in Jerusalem afforded him an opportunity to notice Bathsheba bathing and to desire her. He sent for her and consummated his desire, after which she conceived (11:2-5). To cover his actions, he sent for her husband Uriah, who had been with the army; however, Uriah refused to enter his own house while his compatriots and the ark were away, engaged in battle, so David arranged to have him killed (thereby achieving some personal satisfaction perhaps, but still not solving his problem of paternity) (11:6-25). David then took Bathsheba as his wife, but YHWH was displeased, and sent Nathan the prophet to confront him. Nathan did so, via a cleverly contrived story that trapped David into admitting his own guilt (12:1-15a). Included in Nathan's oracle was a sentence upon David (12:10-12), one that was fulfilled in several ways after this. The son born to Bathsheba died because of David's sin (12:15b-23), but a grace note was struck for David and Bathsheba in the birth of another son, who was named "Solomon" (meaning "peaceable") and "Jedidiah" (meaning "beloved of YHWH") (12:24-25).

4. The Ammonite War - II (2 Sam 12:26-31). After this (or in the meantime), Joab captured Rabbah, the Ammonite capital, and David came out to take it officially and to subdue the Ammonites, who thereafter did not pose a threat to Israel.

5. Two Rebellious Sons (2 Sam 13:1-19:1--Eng 18:33). From the perspective of succession struggles, the next episodes serve to clarify the picture somewhat, since two of David's oldest sons -- Amnon and Absalom -- are killed here. From the perspective of the story of David himself, however, these episodes show him to be "under the curse," the keynotes of which are struck in chaps. 10-12, especially 12:10-12 (Carlson 1964: 129-259). He is a relatively passive figure throughout.

First, David's oldest son AMNON raped his half-sister Tamar (13:1-22). In retaliation for this, ABSALOM, David's third son, killed Amnon, and then fled to Geshur, the home of his mother Maacah, E of the Sea of Galilee, where he stayed for three years (13:23-39; cf. 3:3). At this point, David did little to influence events; he mainly reacted to them (12:21, 37, 39), mourning the loss of these two sons.

Absalom finally was brought back through the efforts of Joab, David's general and nephew, who recruited a wise woman from Tekoa to masquerade as a bereaved mother whose remaining son's life was threatened (14:1-24). When David's compassion caused him to intercede, she pointed out to him that Absalom's lot was the same as her son's. Acknowledging her point, David restored Absalom from exile but did not allow him to come into his presence for two years (14:24, 28). Father and son finally were reconciled after some persistence on Absalom's part (14:29-33).

Soon afterward, however, Absalom began an active campaign of subversion against his father (15:1-12). He conspired to be made king at Hebron, his birthplace and the place of his father's acclamation as king and early reign over Judah and all Israel. His star rose steadily in Israel: this good fortune included the defection to his side of Ahithophel, David's counselor (15:12).

David was forced to flee from Jerusalem, along with most of his household and the warriors loyal to him (15:13-16:14). During the flight, a sad one (15:23, 30), David did work (rather effectively, as it turned out) to subvert Absalom's rebellion. He allowed Ittai, leader of 600 men from Gath, to stay with him (15:19-23); Ittai was one of the three generals who then led the successful battle against Absalom (18:2). He directed the priests Zadok and Abiathar to return with the ark to Jerusalem (15:24-29); their presence there would later help him (15:35-36, etc.). He asked YHWH to render the defector Ahithophel's counsel against him ineffective (15:31); this prayer was answered, and Ahithophel hanged himself (16:20-17:23). He met Hushai and enlisted his help as a spy and counter-influence to Ahithophel (15:32-37); Hushai proved to be the answer to his prayer (16:15-17:23). He also met Ziba, Saul's servant, who attempted to ingratiate himself with David, and one Shimei, who cursed him as he fled (16:1-14). David dealt graciously with both (cf. also 19:17-31--Eng 19:16-30).

Following David's departure, Absalom entered Jerusalem (16:15). Ahithophel advised him to consolidate his position as king by taking his father's concubines, which he did (16:20-23). He also counseled a selective strike that would kill only David (17:1-4). To counter Ahithophel's advice, David's agent Hushai advised a large-scale mobilization instead, and Absalom took this advice, which prompted Ahithophel to hang himself (17:5-14, 23). YHWH's hand could be seen in this, since Ahithophel's had been good counsel (17:14): the delay in mobilization allowed Hushai to send word to David about Absalom's plans, via the two priests' sons, thus setting the stage for the military confrontation (17:15-22).

The confrontation took place across the Jordan, in the dense Forest of Ephraim in Gilead. Absalom's forces, under Amasa, were no match for David's seasoned followers, under Joab, Abishai, and Ittai, and many were lost, to the sword or to the forest (18:1-8). Absalom himself was killed by Joab and word of his death was brought to David (18:9-32); the moving climax of the story is reached abruptly, in David's reaction to his son's death and his poignant lament (19:1--Eng 18:33).

6. David's Restoration (2 Sam 19:2 [Eng 19:1]-20:26). Imme-diately following Absalom's death, there was a power vacuum in Jerusalem and some confusion over David's proper role in a re-newed Israel since he had, in effect, been deposed as king by his son. The situation was aggravated by David's prolonged preoccupation with Absalom's death, rather than with his loyal followers; after a sharp rebuke by Joab, David arose to take his rightful place, in the gate at Mahanaim (19:2-9a--Eng 19:1-8a).

North-south tensions that had been visible earlier (chaps. 2-5) now resurfaced. To fill the power vacuum in Israel, David courted the elders of his own tribe, Judah, and was accepted by them as king upon his return to Cisjordan. He also courted Amasa, Absalom's general, to the exclusion of his own general, Joab (19:9b-16--Eng 19:8b-15).

This appointment was typical of the magnanimity and the forgive-and-forget attitude that is presented in connection with David's return. David also forgave Shimei, who had cursed him earlier, and he assured Mephibosheth of his favor, despite questions that had arisen about his loyalties (19:17-31--Eng 19:16-30). Even Ziba, Saul's servant, retained David's favor, despite his deception (19:30--Eng 19:29; cf. 16:1-4). David also invited Barzillai, who had helped him when he was in flight (17:27-29), to join him in Jerusalem; the feeble Barzillai sent his son instead (19:32-41--Eng 19:31-40).

While David had been acclaimed in Judah, the men of Israel felt they had not been properly included in his return (19:42-44--Eng 19:41-43). Their discontent formed the basis for the brief success of the revolt against David by one Sheba, a Benjaminite (20:1-22). The Israelites responded to his call to withdraw from David, while David finally returned to Jerusalem. David then sent out two of his generals, Amasa and Abishai, to counter this new rebellion. Amasa was killed by Joab, whom he had replaced as general, and then Joab led the pursuit of Sheba, who was killed by the citizens of Abel of Beth-maacah, at the advice of a wise woman there.

David's restoration to power was complete with the return of Joab to Jerusalem (20:22d), and a second list of his administrative officials follows this notice (20:23-26; cf. 8:16-18).

7. David's Last Deeds (2 Sam 21:1-24:25). David's position as a theological symbol is reemphasized in the final chapters of 2 Samuel (Childs 1979: 273-77). First, we have the story of David's execution of seven of Saul's sons, but he was not to be held responsible for this, since it was due to the bloodguilt of Saul. As for David, we see him sparing Mephibosheth (cf. chap. 9) and recovering the remains of Saul and Jonathan for proper burial (21:1-14).

Next, we have a list of David's heroes, who were involved in four Philistine wars (21:15-22). His military prowess here is downplayed; indeed, in his last battle (21:15-17), his weakness is particularly evident.

This weakness forms an appropriate lead-in to his poetic praise in chap. 22, where YHWH receives the credit for David's victories. The prose introduction (22:1) includes "all his enemies" (and not just Saul) as ones from whom YHWH delivered him, rendering appropriate the psalm's inclusion here, with other accounts of the end of his life. The psalm closes (22:51) with a reference to the all-important Davidic Covenant.

Another poem follows, in which we also see a theocentric emphasis: the "Testament" of David (23:1-7). Here David, the "sweet psalmist of Israel," also is deemed the "anointed of the God of Jacob" (23:1), and the everlasting Davidic Covenant is once again emphasized (23:5). The poem also speaks of the ideal ruler, of which David was the prototype (cf. Psalms 1-2).

Another list of David's heroes follows (23:8-39). The list ends, significantly, with Uriah, whom David had killed; this abrupt reminder of a major blot on David's record serves effectively to introduce another episode in which he also sinned (chap. 24), especially since the parallel list of his heroes in 1 Chr 11:26-47 occurs in a different context and adds some 16 additional names after Uriah's.

Another story now follows (24:1-25), in which David, responding to a kindling of YHWH's wrath, numbered the people in an apparent gesture of lack of faith. The punishment -- which David was allowed to choose -- was a great plague upon the people. David then purchased the land that ultimately would serve as the site of the Temple, and he offered sacrifices there that averted YHWH's anger. The books of Samuel end with a note of YHWH's graciousness for the sake of the land (24:25; cf. 21:14).

8. Two Contentious Sons (1 Kgs 1:1-2:12). David's final decline and demise were accompanied by a somewhat unseemly struggle for succession between Adonijah, his oldest surviving son, and Solomon, Bathsheba's favorite. The feeble condition of David (1:1-4, 15) prompted Adonijah to claim the throne and have himself acclaimed as king (1:5-10). His boldness was partially due to David's failure as a parent (1:6; cf. the similar comment about David and Amnon in the versions of 2 Sam 13:21 [Ulrich 1978: 84-85]). Adonijah's actions prompted Nathan and Bathsheba, who were among those excluded from his celebrations (cf. 1:8-10), to champion Solomon's cause (1:11-27), even to the point of deceiving David (1:13; cf. 1:30). David placed his imprimatur upon Solomon, along with instructions for his installation as king (1:28-37). Solomon was anointed and Adonijah disposed of (1:38-53), after which David gave Solomon his final charge (2:1-4) and instructions for disposition of various characters previously associated with David (2:5-9). David was buried in the city that bore his name, after having reigned 40 years, and he was succeeded by his son Solomon (2:10-12).

F. A Man After God's Own Heart. Taken in toto, the biblical pictures of David are overwhelmingly positive. As a "historical" person, he accomplished much and was greatly favored, despite his flaws. As a theological symbol, he was the godly king par excellence.

1. David in the Former Prophets. The books of 1 and 2 Samuel contain the most detailed "biographical" information about David. He is shown rising to the throne of Israel from humble beginnings as a shepherd, and then select portions of his life while he was king are discussed, until his death (see above, §§C-E). The "reporting" displays close attention to detail and people, contains much dialogue and insight into people's mental processes, and is a masterpiece of literary composition.

In general, the image of David portrayed here is one of a talented and (more importantly) divinely chosen and favored figure who rises to power almost in spite of himself, who is the recipient of an important divine promise, but who then subverts much of his own accomplishment through his sin, after which his life is a series of troubles. A clear message here is that YHWH (and David's trust in YHWH) are behind his rise to kingship, and that YHWH's covenant with David will not be derailed by David's flaws. He is a "flawed but favored" character (Bowman in press), and this favor is the true key to whatever success he has, a point that especially is reiterated in subsequent texts. In 1 and 2 Kings, David is important as the father of the Judahite dynasty, as the recipient of the divine promise, and as the standard for the righteous kings; significantly, his status as a warrior is downplayed (Gerbrandt 1986: 158-73).

2. David in Chronicles. The books of 1 and 2 Chronicles have "Davidism" (North 1963: 376-81; cf. Howard 1988: 26-30) as a major motif, with David as the central character in 1 Chronicles. After an extensive genealogical section (chaps. 1-9) that highlights the interest in Judah, the Davidic dynasty, and the institution by David of centralized worship at Jerusalem and the Temple, the book quickly dispenses with Saul (chap. 10) in order to highlight David's reign (chaps. 11-29). David now is presented as completely flawless, and very much concerned with religious matters.

Much of 1 Chronicles parallels the accounts in 1-2 Samuel, but it has its own selective omissions and additions, and its own distinctive slant. Specifically, 1 Chronicles omits the entire story of David's rise to power (§C, above), except for a cursory look at Saul (chap. 10), the list of his sons (3:1-4), his anointing at Hebron (11:1-3), and his capture of Jerusalem (11:4-9). Most of the material related to his consolidation of power (§D) is included, but almost all of the story of his decline (§E) is missing (including the story of his sins related to Bathsheba), except for his Ammonite war (19:1-20:3) and some of the material from the Samuel "Appendix" (2 Samuel 21-24).

First Chronicles does provide us with some significant, new information concerning David not found elsewhere. Significant additions include an expanded listing of David's supporters (chap. 12); an extended psalm (16:4-42); and details of David's preparations for building of the Temple, Levitical and priestly responsibilities, instructions for musicians, gatekeepers, keepers of the treasuries, officers, judges, and other officials, and David's last words to Solomon and the people, in which he encouraged them particularly in building the Temple and in following their God (22:2-29:22a).

The picture of David that emerges in 1 Chronicles is one of a true "man after God's own heart" (cf. 1 Sam 13:14; Acts 13:22). His devotion to God, especially as expressed through his preparations for the future Temple and everything associated with it, and his place as God's favored king, the head of the Judahite (and messianic) dynasty, are important elements in the book. The notice of his death shows him to have had a full, honorable, and honored life (1 Chr 29:28, 30).

3. David in the Latter Prophets, the Writings, and the NT. Elsewhere in the Bible, David is important not so much as a "historical" character, but rather as a model for godly kings and especially as a symbol of Israel's monarchy and of YHWH's favor upon the nation (see COVENANT, DAVIDIC; MESSIAH).

For example, in the Latter Prophets, David and his kingship take on eschatological significance; they appear as symbols of YHWH's favor in the past and present, but most especially in the future. In the Psalter, David appears in the superscriptions of almost half the psalms; 14 of these tie their psalms with incidents in David's life. (In the LXX, some 14 additional psalms are attributed to him, and 11QPssa, col. 27 states that he authored 4050 psalms.) The importance of the royal psalms in the Psalter -- including their placement (Wilson 1986) -- also points to the significance of David and the Davidic kingship. In the NT, David is significant as the ancestor of Jesus, who is the "son of David" and the Davidic king par excellence.

G. Sources and Methods For the Study of David. 1. Literary Sources Identified in the Bible. The primary biblical sources for our knowledge of David are the books of 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. The Bible also mentions documents that no longer exist in which information about David was contained: the "Book of Yashar" (2 Sam 1:18), the "Chronicles of Samuel the seer," the "Chronicles of Nathan the prophet," and the "Chronicles of Gad the seer" (1 Chr 29:29).

Modern textual criticism has added much to the study of David, particularly in 1 and 2 Samuel, where there are marked variations at many points (Driver 1913; Ulrich 1978; McCarter 1980a: 5-11). In addition, the recent understanding of the Chronicler's stance as an exegete of his sources in Samuel and Kings also has helped in the study of David (Ackroyd 1977; Sailhamer 1989).

2. Literary Sources Not Identified in the Bible. Modern scholars have identified various hypothetical sources within the biblical texts for the accounts of David's life. One approach divides the texts (at least in 1 Samuel) into intertwined strands, attributed to different authors with different styles and perspectives (Wellhausen 1871), but it is not as common today as previously.

The dominant approach in this century has identified two major "documents" in 1 and 2 Samuel related to David, generally known as the "History of David's Rise" or "David's Rise to Power" (1 Samuel 16-2 Samuel 5) and the "Succession [or "Accession"] Narrative" (2 Samuel 9-20, 1 Kings 1-2). While larger documents have been proposed -- such as Campbell's "Prophetic Record" (1986), Noth's "Deuteronomistic History" (1981), and Freedman's "Primary History" (1976) -- the two primary Davidic documents are seen as having been incorporated into these largely undisturbed.

The "History of David's Rise" was first named in 1926 by Rost (1982; cf. Lemche 1978; McCarter 1980b), and its purpose has been seen to legitimate David's kingship by reporting on his rise to power in Jerusalem from humble beginnings as a shepherd boy, or by functioning as an "apology," a defense against various charges that David illegitimately usurped power from Saul. Although generally analyzed as political propaganda, its essential "historical" orientation usually has been accepted.

Positive evaluations such as this particularly have applied to the second document, the "Succession Narrative" (also called the "Court History of David") (Rost 1982; Whybray 1968). It has been analyzed as a review of the question of the succession to David's throne generally or as a Solomonic apologetic specifically. While its political or other agendas have been stressed, its "historical" character has been praised as perhaps the closest example in the Hebrew Bible of "objective" historiography, most likely written by a close observer of the court. Even this is now questioned, however (Gunn 1978; Hagan 1979; Whitelam 1984; Ackerman 1990). Nevertheless, its general historical orientation and its delightful literary artistry are not seriously questioned.

3. Literary Approaches to the Study of David. While the approaches in §G2 are, strictly speaking, "literary," recently, a third approach has arisen that focuses upon the received or final forms of the texts, rather than upon hypothetical "documents" that may have existed prior to the texts' final writing or redaction. Here, the approaches vary widely, ranging from "structuralist" or "formalist" treatments that are primarily descriptive of literary techniques (Fokkelmann 1981, 1986; Garsiel 1985) or that go beyond this to identify larger narrative purposes or agendas (Gunn 1978, 1980; Polzin 1989; Bowman in press) to "post-structuralist" or "deconstructionist" treatments that see meaning as indeterminate (whether intentionally so or not) in any text (Miscall 1983: 47-143, 1986; Gunn 1989; cf. Jobling 1986: 12-30).

4. Archaeological/Historical Approaches to the Study of David. Archaeology has provided another -- albeit limited -- avenue by which to study David. Here, the contribution is generally to provide an understanding of the various contexts -- historical, political, economic, sociological -- in which he lived. David became king at the beginning of the Iron II Age (ca. 1000-586 B.C.E.), which encompassed the golden age of Israelite life and culture. It represented a resurgence of building activities and political expansion, after the relative "dark age" of Iron I (ca. 1200-1000 B.C.E.). David himself initiated several building projects in Jerusalem (2 Sam 5:9, 11), but only limited data has come from excavations there, including wall fragments and a few miscellaneous loose objects, such as ceramic chalices and a portion of a cultic stand (see DAVID, CITY OF). Elsewhere in Israel, the data is similarly limited. Some impressive building projects, particularly at Megiddo and Beersheba, may have come from that time (Aharoni 1982: 192-224), but their dating is disputed (cf. Yadin 1977). Distribution patterns of pottery from the period are more productive, tending to correlate with the biblical data concerning David's military and governmental expansion (Rast 1989).

On the international scene, the time of David was one in which the major empires of Mesopotamia and Egypt were relatively quiet. Thus, David was able to extend the borders and influence of Israel as far as he did. He established marriage alliances with several small kingdoms, and he had good relations with Tyre. Otherwise, his international relations were adversarial, especially with the Philistines, about whom a fair amount is now known (Dothan 1982; Brug 1985; cf. Ishida 1982 on the international scene in general).

Closely related to strictly archaeological approaches are various "historical" approaches. These tend to be biographical in nature, generally combining the literary approaches mentioned in §§G2-3 with any illumination given by archaeology (Bright 1981: 191-211; McCarter 1986; Merrill 1987: 223-84). However, many scholars are skeptical about the possibility of ever recovering a true picture of the "historical" David (Soggin 1984: 41-68; Miller and Hayes 1986: 149-88).

5. Other Approaches to the Study of David. The literary approaches mentioned in §G3 have been dominant in the 1980s, but another characteristic of the decade has been the wide diversification -- even explosion -- of interests in all directions. This is evidenced by the use of insights from many other disciplines (not just literature) in biblical studies, with much overlap among many of these. Currently, sociological (Brueggemann 1985; Flanagan 1988; cf. Gottwald 1986), feminist (Laffey 1988: 108-28), and political/ideological (Rosenberg 1986: 99-199) approaches are among the most popular in the study of David. Most of these and those in §G3 are "reader-oriented" approaches, in which concerns of the reader(s) participate in determining meaning (Gunn 1987). David has been a continuing focus of interest from other perspectives, as well (Frontain and Wojcik 1980; Weisfeld 1983: 149-279; Petersen 1985).

H. Assessment. Evaluations of the historical David necessarily depend upon evaluation of the reliability of the written sources in which he is presented. At the very least, it can be said that this was an extraordinary individual to have stimulated as much historical and theological reflection as he did.

As he is presented in the Bible, David was ideally suited to the tasks of kingship that came to him. His popular following, his victories over the Philistines and others, and his establishment of a powerful kingdom show him to have been a shrewd military strategist and motivator. His successful courting of the factions in Israel and Judah, and his forging of a united Israel that retained its identity for close to 80 years, showed his political skills, and his descendants were able to retain their position on the throne in Jerusalem for centuries afterward. Administratively, his establishment of the military, civil, and religious bureaucracies displayed yet another dimension of his talents.

David's skills as a poet, musician, and sponsor of music were renowned, as well. His compositions in 2 Samuel and the Davidic psalms demonstrate a poetic genius. His sponsorship of, and involvement in, religious celebrations in connection with the ark show his musical talents and interests. We even read of "instruments of David" that he created or that were somehow associated with him (2 Chr 29:26; Neh 12:36; cf. Amos 6:5).

In addition, David displayed a fine religious sensitivity for the most part. Certainly the Davidic psalms demonstrate this, although the actual composition of all of them by David is disputed. Even outside the Psalter, however, David's relationship with his God, his concern for others' welfare, his ready repentance when confronted with his sin, and his concerns for the religious matters pertaining to the Temple and the cult all evidence this, as well.

Ultimately, however, David's lasting significance lay in his position as YHWH's chosen king for Israel, and as the father of the royal dynasty that YHWH chose to bless. He occupied a midpoint between his great ancestor Abraham and his great descendant Jesus. The promises made to David stood in continuity with those to Abraham, and they pointed to a messianic ideal of great promise for the world, an ideal that, so Christians have affirmed, found its expression in Jesus, the Christ.

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This article originally appeared in Anchor Bible Dictionary (Garden City: Doubleday, 1992) - Major entry: David (vol. 2, pp. 41-49).