David M. Howard, Jr.

KING, KINGSHIP

There is scarcely a grander or more widespread image used in the Bible than that of the king. The king was impressive in physical appearance, honored and respected by his people, dispenser of protection, justice, and mercy, and a symbol of great power and authority. In the Bible, two royal images are found -- God as king and humans as kings. It is important in the Bible's theology that the latter reflects the former and that, ultimately, the two merge into one.

The Hebrew-Aramaic word for "king" (melek) is one of the most commonly used in the Hebrew language, occurring almost 2700 times. In the New Testament, the same is the case: the Greek word basileús "king" occurs more than 125 times. When the verbal and other noun forms of these and related words are added (i.e., "to reign," "kingdom," etc.), we find ourselves dealing with an important biblical motif woven throughout the entire fabric of the Bible's message.

Human Kingship

By far the most common reference in the Bible is to human kings and kingdoms. The first citations are found in Gen 14:1, referring to four Mesopotamian kings who did battle against kings hear the Dead Sea, and the final citation is in Rev. 21:24, referring to the kings of the earth who will honor the heavenly Jerusalem by bringing their splendor into it. Between these, we see human kings of all varieties: Solomon in all his glory (and yet self-destructing in the end); David, Hezekiah, and Josiah as models of faith and righteousness; Jeroboam, Ahab, Manasseh, and dozens of others as embodiments of wickedness in Israel and Judah; and even foreign kings and emperors, most of whom are symbols of evil.

The trappings surrounding kings were the most rich and ostentatious of any group's in society. Solomon's palace took almost twice as long to build as did the Temple, and his wealth and fame were astonishing: his court consumed astounding amounts of foodstuffs each day, he had thousands of horses (1 Kgs 4:22-28 [MT 5:2-8]), he maintained a vast fleet of trading ships (1 Kgs 9:26-28), and his wisdom, wealth, and fame spread far and wide (1 Kings 10). The king was anointed into his office: we are told specifically about the anointing of Saul, David, Solomon, and Jehu (see especially the account of Jehu's anointing: 2 Kgs 9:1-13). The king's personal symbols of royalty included royal robes (1 Kgs 22:10, 30; 1 Chr 15:27), a scepter (Gen 49:10), an ornate throne (1 Kgs 10:18-20), a crown (2 Sam 1:10; 2 Kgs 11:12), unparalleled wealth (1 Kgs 10:14-29; 2 Chr 32:27-30), a personal army of troops (2 Sam 23:8-39), and burial in the royal tombs in Samaria (2 Kgs 13:13) or Jerusalem (2 Kgs 9:28; 2 Chr 32:33). As rich as the pictures are of the Israelite and Judahite kings in the Bible, however, larger empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman empires exceeded Solomon's and other kings' in their wealth and luxury. Throughout the ancient Near East, the king's power, wealth, and stature was a symbol of the nation's.

The monarchy in Israel was supposed to contrast with that of the surrounding nations. Although it arrived relatively late on the scene in Israel's history in comparison with the offices of priest, judge, or prophet, it nevertheless had early roots, in God's promises to Abraham. Among the many blessings he was promised were kings that were to come from his line (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11). This promise is placed into sharper focus in Jacob's blessing upon his twelve sons, where royal authority is promised to Judah (Gen 49:8-12). Here, Judah is to receive the obeisance of his brothers (not Joseph, as earlier is the case: Gen 37:5-11), and the scepter, the ruling staff, belongs exclusively to Judah. This promise comes to fruition in the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (since David was from the tribe of Judah) and in God's promise to David that his will be an everlasting dynasty (2 Sam 7:11-16). In 1-2 Chronicles, the eternal aspect of this kingdom is repeatedly found (e.g., 1 Chr 17:12, 14, 17, 23, 24, 27; 2 Chr 9:8; 13:5, 8; 21:7), as well as the important assertion that the earthly kingdom represented by the Davidic line is to be identified with God's kingdom: 2 Chr 13:8 mentions "the kingdom of the Lord in the hands of the sons of David," and 1 Chr 28:5 and 29:23 mention Solomon sitting on "the throne of (the kingdom of) the Lord" (see also 2 Chr 9:8). Israel itself was to be a "kingdom of priests" (Exod 19:6), an idea applied in the NT by Peter and John to the entire body of believers (1 Pet 2:9; Rev 1:6; 5:10).

The Israelite king was to meet several strict criteria, according to Deut 17:14-20: (1) he was to be chosen by God; (2) he was not to be a foreigner; (3) he must not accumulate horses (i.e., build up and trust in his military might); (4) he must not accumulate many wives, lest his heart be turned aside; (5) he must not accumulate wealth for himself; (6) he must write a copy of the Law for himself; and (7) he must read it and obey it.

The king, then, was not a law unto himself, but rather was subject to God's Law. His major function was to be an example of a humble servant of Yahweh leading the people in keeping the Law. Concerning national security (a major concern in Israel and in all surrounding nations), it was Yahweh himself who was to be Israel's warrior. Thus, when Israel asked for a king like the nations, to lead them in fighting their battles (1 Sam 8:5, 20), this represented a deposing of Yahweh as Israel's warrior. The same issues is at stake in the Israelites' request of Gideon to rule over them because he -- and not Yahweh -- had supposedly defeated the Midianites, at least in the Israelites' minds (Judg 8:22-23).

The kings were accountable to Yahweh, and the prophets were his representatives to confront them when they sinned. Over and over again prophets such as Nathan, Gad, Elijah, Elisha, Micaiah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Amos, and many others confronted the kings. This contrasts dramatically with ancient Near Eastern conceptions of kingship, where, in Egypt, the kings (pharaohs) were considered to be gods themselves, and elsewhere, where kings were nearly divine and certainly were not subordinated to prophets representing the gods. The norm in the ancient Near East -- and often in Israel and Judah -- was that prophets were beholden to the kings and told them what they wanted to hear (see Ahab and the 450 prophets of Baal in 1 Kings 18 and, later, his 400 advisory prophets in 1 Kings 22).

The special relationship of the Davidic king to Yahweh in the OT is represented well in the royal psalms (a minimal list includes Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144). In Psalm 2, for example, the king is God's anointed one (v. 2) and his own adopted son (v. 7; cf. 2 Sam 7:14). The king is to be loyal to Yahweh, to establish justice and righteousness and to help the needy (Psalms 72, 101). His abode is at Zion, Yahweh's holy hill (Psalms 2, 132). Yahweh gives him victory over his enemies (Psalms 2, 20, 21, 110, 144).

Non-Israelite kings in the OT are almost uniformly presented in a negative light, as adversaries to God's people and obstructions to God's plan. Whether they were the great Egyptian pharaohs, petty Canaanite "kinglets" (i.e., kings of small city-states), or Assyrian or Babylonian warrior-kings, they were consumed with their own power and importance, and thus were opposed to Yahweh. Among the notable exceptions are several Persian kings. For example, Cyrus was Yahweh's instrument to redeem his people from exile (Ezr 1:1-4), and God called him "my shepherd" and his "anointed one" (Is 44:28; 45:1). Darius was kind to Daniel (Daniel 6) and Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) dealt well with Esther and Mordecai.

In the NT, the human kings also are usually seen setting themselves against Yahweh and his anointed one: Pharaoh, the Herods, Aretas, and the Roman emperors are all presented as such. Such kings are known as "kings of the earth" (e.g., Mt 17:25; Rev 1:5; 6:15); the "kings of the Gentiles" (Lk 22:25); or "kings of the whole world" (Rev 16:14). Only David and Melchizedek receive a positive treatment in the NT, David, because of the promises to him about his perpetual dynasty, which Jesus Christ fulfilled completely (cf. Mt 1:1), and Melchizedek, the king of Salem (Genesis 14) because of his priestly position (cf. Hebrews 7).

Divine Kingship

One of the most important ways in which the Bible speaks of God in both OT and NT is that he rules as king. We first encounter this in the Song of Moses and Miriam, which affirms that "The LORD will reign for ever and ever" (Exod 15:18; NIV). This idea of God's eternal reign as king in the future is repeated numerous times (e.g., Mic 4:7; Pss 10:16; 29:10; 66:7; 146:10; Jer 10:10; 1 Tim 1:17). It is also affirmed as extending into time immemorial in the past (e.g., Pss 74:12; 93:2).

Yahweh's kingship is over his own people, including the Israelite king (e.g., Num 23:21; 1 Sam 12:12; Is 33:22; Ezek 20:33; Pss 44:4 [MT 5]; 74:12; 145:1; 44:6). However, the Biblical vision of Yahweh's kingship extends to the nations, as well. He is a sovereign God over them, and they will worship him in the end (e.g., Exod 15:18; Mic 4:7; Pss 22:28; 47:2 [3], 7 [8], 8 [9]; 93:1; 96:10 // 1 Chr 16:31; Pss 97:1; 99:1; 146:10; Jer 10:7, 10; 46:18; 48:15; 51:57; Zech 14:16, 17; Mal 1:14; 2 Chr 20:6). Beyond this, God's sovereignty extends to the elements of nature and the gods worshipped among the nations (see especially in the Kingship of Yahweh Psalms: 47, 93, 96-99, 145). It is here that Yahweh as Creator-King is prominent, as well.

God's rule is in the heavens, but his throne in OT times was depicted as being the ark of the covenant (1 Sam 4:4; Ps 99:1). Isaiah saw a glorious vision of the LORD sitting on his throne, high and exalted, surrounded by worshipping seraphs (Is 6:1-5). To him is due the worship of the nations (Zech 14:16, 17).

The NT speaks often of Jesus Christ as king, as well. This has its roots in the OT Davidic kingship (Jesus was the son of David: Mt 1:1; Rom 1:3) and the OT messianic idea. The English word "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew mashîa² (and Aramaic me*î²**), which mean "anointed one"; these terms were taken into Greek as Messias or translated as Christos. Jesus the Christ is the anointed king par excellence from the line of David, and numerous messianic prophecies in the OT look ahead to him (see MESSIAH). Jesus was the Son of God ontologically, as the second Person of the Trinity (see Jn 1:1-18), and also as the son of David, since any Davidic king was God's "son" (2 Sam 7:14; Ps 2:7). It is in the person of Jesus Christ, then, that the images of human and divine kingship are finally and uniquely merged.

In the Gospels, Jesus is called "Son of David," "King of the Jews," or "King of Israel," primarily by his opponents during his trial before Pilate (Matthew 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 18-19). He did acknowledge his kingship openly in response to the high priest, however, in glorious language: "I am [the Christ], and you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven" (Mk 14:62).

The culmination of Jesus Christ's kingship is found in Revelation. Here, he is the "King of kings and Lord of lords" (Rev 19:16; cf. also 17:14), i.e., occupying the same place that Yahweh occupies in the OT passages that speak about his kingship. The Lord God himself is the "King of the nations" (NASB; NRSV) or the "ages" (NIV) (Rev 15:3). Indeed, most of the Book of Revelation is devoted to declaring God's victory over the powers of evil. The OT offices of prophet, priest, judge, and king all coalesce in the NT in the person of Jesus Christ, who is the exalted king over all and to whom every knee will bow (Phil 2:9-11).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

D. M. Howard, Jr., "The Case for Kingship in Deuteronomy and the Former Prophets," WTJ 52 (1990) 101-15.

H. Kleinknecht at al., basileús, TDNT 1, pp. 564-93.

B. Klappert, "King, Kingdom," NIDNTT 2, pp. 372-90.

G. V. Smith, "The Concept of God/the Gods as King in the Ancient Near East and the Bible," Trinity Journl 3 (1982) 18-38.

(This article originally appeared in Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1998): 476-78.)