BETHEL WORKSHOP #1:  INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESSES

The following topics are addressed . . .


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Learning Theory

Learning Theory Models
Bloom's Taxonomy
Learning Styles
Dominant Learning Styles Models
Myers-Briggs
Keirsey Sorter
Kolb
Gardner
Herrmann
Felder
Gregoric
Brain Theory
Grasha-Reichmann
Online Instruments To Determine Learning Style
Instructional System Design
Dick & Carey ISD Process
ADDIE ISD Model
ASSURE ISD Model
Helpful ISD Links
Course Objectives Formats
Mager's Model
Gronlund's Model
Briggs & Gagne's Model
Writing Course Objectives

Assessing Learning Outcomes

Distance Education Considerations

 
Learning Theory

Learning theory is that body of research and knowledge focusing on how people learn.  Many theories have been identified and studied yielding significant insights applicable to classroom and distance instruction.

What's education all about?
Funderstanding was founded five years ago to create better learning environments in both the corporate and public education arenas. This Web site explores how learning potential is enhanced according to leading education, cognitive science, and other theorists.  This site addresses four questions related to learning.
How do people learn?
What should be learned?
How should learning be designed?
How will we know if learning occurs?


Learning Theory in the Classroom

Penn State has assembled a comprehensive directory of Web-based resources on a variety of subjects associated with learning theory.  This compendium provides a wealth of valuable resources to faculty and others who develop and  teach courses in any setting.

Learning Theory in the Classroom
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LEARNING THEORY MODELS

Knowles's Learning Theory

Malcolm Knowles was one of the first scholars to distinguish pedagogy from andragogy.  Andragogy is adult learner centered and calls for a focus on process as opposed to dissemination of content.

Andragogy vs Pedagogy


Gagne's Learning Theory

Gagne's theory is wide sweeping and complex but helpful and informative.  He identifies several different types or levels of learning with each requiring a different type of instruction.  These categories of learning include verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Gagne's Theory
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BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

Bloom's Learning Theory

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom and a group of educational psychologists developed a classification of levels of intellectual assimilation of knowledge, values and skills.  This taxonomy includes three overlapping domains; cognitive, affective and behavioral.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Bloom's Domains & Instructional Media
Bloom's Cognitive Domain Expanded
Bloom's Cognitive & Affective Domains Expanded
Bloom's Cognitive Domain & Teaching
Bloom's Cognitive Domain & Outcomes
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Learning Styles

New Students - New Learning Styles by Charles C. Schroeder

This article is a 'must' read for every faculty person who intends to reach the type of learner's coming to our classrooms today.  After a brief introduction, the author addresses learning characteristics of new students, learning patterns and student performance, faculty characteristics and new students (a mismatch?), and bridging the gap.

New Students - New Learning Styles
Definition:  The definition of learning styles proposed by the National Task Force on Learning Style and Brain Behavior and quoted by Bennett (1990).
"Learning style is that consistent pattern of behavior and performance by which an individual approaches educational experiences. It is the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment. It is formed in the deep structure of neural organization and personality which molds and is molded by human development and the cultural experience of home, school and society."   (p.140)
Learning Styles & Teaching

Student & Teaching Styles Comparison


Models of Learning Styles

Many models are used to describe learning styles.  The sites listed below give a brief overview grouped according to instructional preferences, social interaction models, information processing and personality levels.  Five specific models will be addressed after this introduction.

The Center for Teaching and Learning at Indiana State University provides a very helpful overview beginning with a lead article by Terry O'Connor titled Using Learning Styles to Adapt Technology for Higher Education.
 
Brief Summary of Select Learning Style Models


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Dominant Learning Style Models

Several learning style models dominate practices today.  Collectively, they provide a composite picture of the stylistic matrix that is helpful to faculty in the effective development and conduct of instruction.  They include the following models.
  Although an overall understanding is instructive, a preference of one over another is really that, a preference on the part of faculty.  The important thing to remember is that your students are coming to class (virtual or otherwise) with a combination of learning styles.  Felder advises, "The idea is not to teach each student exclusively according to his or her preferences, but rather to strive for a balance of instructional methods."  Development and conduct must consider different learning styles of students if we hope to reach their transformation center -- the heart.  Proverbs 4:23

An article by Richard M. Felder of North Carolina State University entitled Matters of Style describes four of the five prominent learning style models mentioned above.  In the article, he addresses applications for each of the four models.  Finally, he sets forth some strategies that will ensure appeal to a range of learning styles.  Additional information on all five of these models can be found at the following Web sites.
 

Extraversion/Introversion, Intuition/Sensing, Feeling/Thinking, Perceiving/Judging


Guardian, Artisan, Idealist, Rational


Concrete/Reflective (T1), Abstract/Reflective (T2), Abstract/Active (T3), Concrete/Active (T4)
(Accomodators, Divergers, Convergers, Assimilators)


Visual-Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical


Left Brain/Cerebral, Left Brain/Limbic, Right Brain-Limbic, Right Brain-Cerbral


Active & Reflective Learners, Sensing & Intuitive Learners, Visual & Verbal Learners, Inductive & Deductive, Sequential & Global Learners


Visual, Auditory, Kenisthetic & Tactile


Concrete, Abstract, Sequential, Random


Left Brain / Right Brain


Competitive, Collaborative, Avoidant, Participant, Dependent, Independent


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ONLINE INSTRUMENTS FOR DETERMINING LEARNING STYLES


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INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN

Instruction is a systematic process in which teacher, students, materials and the learning environment are crucial to a successful learning experience.  Several models use a systems approach for the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of instruction.

The ISD process generally entails analyzing your learners, developing and stating instructional objectives/outcomes, designing instructional strategies, selecting and/or developing instructional media and materials, conducting the training, assessing learning, and evaluating the process for feedback and revision if necessary.

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The Systematic Design of Instruction - Dick & Carey's Model is a widely accepted and trusted model for designing curricula.  The process includes the following stages.

  1. Identify instructional goals.
  2. Conduct an instructional analysis.
  3. Identify entry behaviors and learner characteristics.
  4. Write performance objectives.
  5. Develop criterion reference test items.
  6. Develop instructional strategy.
  7. Develop and/or select instructional media/materials.
  8. Develop and conduct formative evaluation.
  9. Develop and conduct summative evaluation.
  10. Revise instruction.
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The ADDIE Instructional Design Model is the systematic approach to the Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation of learning materials and activities.  This model focuses on a learner-centered rather than the traditional teacher-centered approach to instruction.

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The ASSURE Model is a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media.  The model includes six steps.  Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D., & Smaldino, S.E.  (1996). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning, 5th Ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ:  Prentice-Hall, Inc.

  1. Analyze learners.
  2. State objectives.
  3. Select methods, media, and materials.
  4. Utilize media and materials.
  5. Require learner participation.
  6. Evaluate and revise.
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Helpful Instructional Design Links

  • Resources & Reference Materials
  • Instructional Design Workshop
  • Instructional Design Planning Form
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    COURSE OBJECTIVES FORMATS

    Each objective/outcome includes two or three primary components; a terminal behavior preceded by an action verb, conditions of demonstration and, in many cases, a description of the standard or criteria of measurement.

    Terminal behavior includes a description of the actions that the learner can show that will demonstrate that he or she has learned.  The action statement includes an action verb.

    The statement of condition of demonstration describes the tools or information that the learners will be given when they demonstrate their learning and usually begins with the word given.

    A description of the standards or criteria describes how well the learner must do for the learner to have achieved the objective/outcome.


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  • Mager's Behavioral Objectives

    • Used in psychomotor learning tasks or cognitive tasks that have observable components.  Includes three components:  a condition, action or observable performance, and a standard of measurement.

    Organizing Structure:  used most often with Gagne's hierarchy of intellectual outcomes.

    Example:  Given a set of 20 incomplete objectives (condition statement), the student will complete the objective with the appropriate term (desired action or observable performance) within four minutes (standard or criteria).
     

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  • Gronlund Objectives

    • Used generally in cognitive learning tasks.  Often geared toward abstract knowledge.  Includes two components:  a condition and behavior.  Measurement is not mentioned.  Sometimes the condition is implied.

    Organizing Structure:  used most often with Bloom's hierarchy of learning.

    Example:  Given a number of listings of ID components, select the listing that is most complete.


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  • Briggs & Gagne Objectives

    • Generally used for psychomotor or cognitive learning tasks that have observable components.  Includes five components:  situation, tools and constraints, action, object and learning capability.

    Organizing Structure:  used most often with Gagne's hierarchy of intellectual outcomes.

    Example:  Given a list of 20 verbs which may be measurable or non measurable, a student will identify which are measurable by writing a check mark beside each one without error.

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    WRITING COURSE OBJECTIVES

    Bloom's taxonomy addresses the cognitive, affective or psychomotor domains.  This organizing structure is ideally suited to the development and conduct of theological courses.

    Cognitive objectives are ones that deal with concepts, ideas, factual knowledge or intellectual skills.
    Affective objectives are ones that involve appreciation, ideals, attitudes, morals or values.
    Psychomotor objectives are ones that deal with physical actions.
    The objectives in each domain can be arranged according to the degree of assimilation desired, the complexity of intellectual or affective operations, or the sophistication of the process involved.  Using these categories can help the teacher evaluate the depth of one's teaching and student's learning.
     

    PROCESS

    1. Develop a goal statement sometimes called a terminal objective.

      2.  

       

      A goal is the terminal learning outcome, a general description of what the instructor wants the learner to know or do after all the instruction is completed.

         
    2. Develop learning objectives sometimes called enabling objectives.

      3.  

       

      Learning objectives are the specific descriptions of desired learner behavior expected from sections, segments, topics or subjects of instruction.

     
    EXAMPLES (using Bloom's cognitive categories)

    Knowledge: Given the key verses pertaining to the biblical concept of the heart, identify the four primary components of the heart without error.

    Comprehension: Given the components of the heart, describe in your own words the relationship between all the components that ultimately determine behavior.

    Application: Given a specific central belief, predict three kinds of behavior one can expect to observe from someone holding that particular belief.

    Analysis: Given the four components of the biblical concept of the heart, differentiate between each of the components by stating a definition with an example to the satisfaction of the instructor.

    Synthesis: Using the Bible, find an example of a biblical character whose central belief system is predictive of their behavior and correlate that scenario with a modern day example of the same.

    Evaluation: Given a case study, assess the actions (behavior) of the main character  in terms of central beliefs, core values, world view and motives to the satisfaction of the instructor.
     

       
    EXERCISE
       
    Write an objective using Bloom's taxonomy (cognitive and affective domains only) to include . . .
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    ASSESSING LEARNING OUTCOMES

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    DISTANCE EDUCATION CONSIDERATIONS

    Barry Willis and the University of Idaho Engineering Outreach staff developed online Distance Education at a Glance - A Practical Guide highlighting information detailed in Dr. Willis' books, Distance Education - Strategies and Tools and Distance Education - A Practical Guide.

    Topics

    #1  Distance Education: An Overview
    #2  Strategies for Teaching at a Distance
    #3  Instructional Development for Distance Education
    #4  Evaluation for Distance Educators
    #5  Instructional Television  #6 Instructional Audio
    #7  Computers in Distance Education
    #8  Print in Distance Education
    #9  Strategies for Learning at a Distance
    #10  Distance Education: Research
    #11  Interactive Video-conferencing in Distance Education
    #12  Distance Education and the WWW
    #13  Copyright and Distance Education
    #14  Glossary of Distance Education Terminology

     

    Click Here!